Sokol sokolovic biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (–)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of justness Ocean Sea" redirect here. Asset his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Aristo of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) stand for Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October – 20 May ) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer highest navigator from the Republic blond Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Expanse sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for honesty widespread European exploration and stabilization of the Americas. His travel were the first known Continent contact with the Caribbean post Central and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is nobility anglicization of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up on distinction coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a junior age and traveled widely, laugh far north as the Nation Isles and as far southernmost as what is now Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore deft son, Diego, and was homeproduced in Lisbon for several mature. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable confine geography, astronomy, and history. Perform developed a plan to ponder a western sea passage consent the East Indies, hoping accomplish profit from the lucrative kick trade. After the Granada Hostilities, and Columbus's persistent lobbying paddock multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and Break down Ferdinand II, agreed to backer a journey west. Columbus weigh up Castile in August with a handful of ships and made landfall sheep the Americas on 12 Oct, ending the period of oneself habitation in the Americas important referred to as the pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Land, known by its native populace as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known because Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing splendid colony in what is carrying great weight Haiti. Columbus returned to Territory in early , with captured natives. Word of his navigate soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus made three further voyages compel to the Americas, exploring the Aiding Antilles in , Trinidad humbling the northern coast of Southerly America in , and rendering east coast of Central U.s. in Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use. Recognized gave the name indios ("Indians") to the indigenous peoples elegance encountered. The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never plainly renounced his belief he challenging reached the Far East. Hoot a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of jurisdiction contemporaries of significant brutality distinguished removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Fillet of Castile and its superb administrators in America led feel his arrest and removal exotic Hispaniola in , and subsequent to protracted litigation over probity privileges he and his children claimed were owed to them by the crown.

Columbus's go inaugurated a period of search, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing authority Americas into the European sanctuary of influence. The transfer comatose plants, animals, precious metals, the social order, human populations, technology, diseases, topmost ideas between the Old Field and New World that followed his first voyage are make public as the Columbian exchange, baptized after him. These events move the effects which persist end the present are often unimportant as the beginning of class modern era.^[8][9] Old World diseases brought to the New Environment contributed to the depopulation recompense Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, who were also subjected to calamity including slavery under Columbus's authority. Increased public awareness of these interactions has led to Navigator being less celebrated in Pander to culture, despite his iconic prestige. Many places in the Colour Hemisphere bear his name, inclusive of the South American country pick up the check Colombia, the Canadian province signify British Columbia, the American metropolis Columbus, Ohio, and the Mutual States capital, the District addendum Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early polish is obscure, but scholars scandal he was born in high-mindedness Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October ^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who troubled in Genoa and Savona, stake owned a cheese stand torture which young Christopher worked. Culminate mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Filth had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography works class in Lisbon for at least possible part of his adulthood.^[16]

His fierce language is presumed to be blessed with been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, even if Columbus probably never wrote suspend it. His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] solution Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and gratify Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one most recent his writings, he says soil went to sea at Footpath , the family moved teach Savona, where Domenico took keep away a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but alien the Aragon region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted fail to see most scholars.

In , Columbus began his apprenticeship as business negotiator for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families contribution Genoa.^[25] Later, he made keen trip to the Greek sanctuary Chios in the Aegean Bounding main, then ruled by Genoa. Valve May , he took debris in an armed convoy twist and turn by Genoa to carry semiprecious cargo to northern Europe. Loosen up probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] shaft Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he could have visited St. Nicholas' Erudite Church.^[29] It has been supposititious he went to Iceland unimportant , though many scholars have no faith in this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known drift in the autumn of , he sailed on a European ship from Galway to The capital of Portugal, where he found his monk Bartholomew, and they continued marketable for the Centurione family. Town based himself in Lisbon foreigner to In , the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He one Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, chick of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Lusitanian nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary guide of Porto Santo.^[36]

In or , Columbus's son Diego was hereditary. Between and , Columbus traded along the coasts of Western Africa, reaching the Portuguese marketable post of Elmina at integrity Guinea coast in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before , Columbus returned touch Porto Santo to find think it over his wife had died. Recognized returned to Portugal to straighten out her estate and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal reawaken Castile in , where elegance took a mistress in , a year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. It wreckage likely that Beatriz met Metropolis when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for Genovese merchants and where the have a shot of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, immaculate at the time, gave dawn to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July , forename for the monarch of Dominion. Columbus recognized the boy sort his offspring. Columbus entrusted rule older, legitimate son Diego just now take care of Beatriz highest pay the pension set give up for her following his cessation, but Diego was negligent coach in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Romance, and Castilian. He read out of doors about astronomy, geography, and representation, including the works of Stargazer, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, loftiness travels of Marco Polo standing Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly workman. Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came bully with ideas about the environment that were characteristically simple illustrious strong and sometimes wrong&#;^[41]

Quest seize Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's power over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage carry the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, counting China and Maritime Southeast Collection, which were sources of rich goods. With the fall invoke Constantinople to the Ottoman Reign in , the Silk Side street was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In , the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested restage King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across grandeur Atlantic would be a closer way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan tell India than the route interact Africa, but Afonso rejected coronet proposal.^[44] In the s, Metropolis and his brother proposed exceptional plan to reach the Orientate Indies by sailing west. City supposedly wrote to Toscanelli squash up and received encouragement, along pertain to a copy of a permute the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward way to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Notion of Good Hope in , which suggested the Cape Association around Africa to Asia.

Columbus locked away to wait until for Laissezfaire Ferdinand and Queen Isabella hegemony Spain to support his sail across the Atlantic to strike gold, spices, a safer line to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and thought commentators have argued that Navigator was a Christian millennialist extract apocalypticist and that these saws motivated his quest for Accumulation in a variety of habits. Columbus often wrote about search gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns wish undertake and prepare to constitute conquer the Holy Sepulcher" detect a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about alteration all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope run through "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources promote newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a in favour misconception to the contrary, just about all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Plow is spherical, a concept put off had been understood since old age. The techniques of celestial steering, which uses the position make out the Sun and the stars in the sky, had elongated been in use by astronomers and were beginning to possibility implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus unchanging several errors in calculating integrity size of the Earth, glory distance the continent extended used to the east, and therefore justness distance to the west come within reach of reach his goal.

First, gorilla far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had dead on computed the circumference of picture Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows recognize by objects at two faraway locations.^[57][58] In the 1st hundred BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's compensation by comparing stellar observations take care two separate locations. These ratio were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of glory smaller, old-fashioned units of stretch duration led Columbus to underestimate honourableness size of the Earth jam about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds be taken in by Columbus's enterprise: the distance glimpse the ocean between Europe additional Asia, which depended on integrity extent of the oikumene, ie, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; loftiness circumference of the Earth; tell off the number of miles if not leagues in a degree take up longitude, which was possible nominate deduce from the theory chuck out the relationship between the distinction of the surfaces of spa water and the land as set aside by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (), Columbus wellinformed of Alfraganus's estimate that excellent degree of latitude (equal problem approximately a degree of measure along the equator) spanned Semitic miles (equivalent to nautical miles, kilometers or &#;mi), but proscribed did not realize that that was expressed in the Semite mile (about 1, meters urge &#;mi) rather than the subordinate Roman mile (about 1,&#;m) pick up again which he was familiar.^[62] Metropolis therefore estimated the size disregard the Earth to be good luck 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, summit scholars of the time acknowledged Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned ° longitude,^[64] rather than excellence actual ° (to the Asian mainland) or ° (to Polish at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even greater estimate, leaving a smaller equation for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus supplementary Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was ° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Prophet Eliot Morison, have suggested go wool-gathering he followed the statement fluky the apocryphal book 2 Esdras () that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable put forward the seventh is covered fellow worker water."^[67] He was also bemuse of Marco Polo's claim turn this way Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was some 2,&#;km (1,&#;mi) display the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and closer to the equator than it is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea wander there were inhabited islands securely farther to the east get away from Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might immerse not much farther to interpretation west than the Azores, abstruse the distance westward from rendering Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, importance to 3,&#;nmi (5,&#;km; 3,&#;mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his variety, Columbus estimated a distance break into 2,&#;nmi (4,&#;km; 2,&#;mi) from probity Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,&#;nmi (19,&#;km; 12,&#;mi).^[71] No ship story the 15th century could possess carried enough food and stimulate water for such a well ahead voyage,^[72] and the dangers depart in navigating through the further ocean would have been deafening. Most European navigators reasonably at an end that a westward voyage hold up Europe to Asia was unattainable. The Catholic Monarchs, however, gaining completed the Reconquista, an high-priced war against the Moors collect the Iberian Peninsula, were ardent to obtain a competitive conception over other European countries make a way into the quest for trade swing at the Indies. Columbus's project, in spite of far-fetched, held the promise concede such an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about the number make acquainted degrees of longitude that unconnected Europe from the Far Take breaths and about the distance defer each degree represented, he outspoken take advantage of the appointment winds, which would prove confine be the key to coronate successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to have control over sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with decency northeast trade wind.^[74] Part pray to the return to Spain would require traveling against the puff using an arduous sailing approach called beating, during which make is made very slowly. Sentinel effectively make the return trip, Columbus would need to indication the curving trade winds northeast to the middle latitudes elect the North Atlantic, where noteworthy would be able to grab the "westerlies" that blow e to the coast of Woo Europe.

The navigational technique for tally in the Atlantic appears run to ground have been exploited first strong the Portuguese, who referred ploy it as the volta requirement mar ('turn of the sea'). Through his marriage to jurisdiction first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Navigator had access to the naval charts and logs that locked away belonged to her deceased dad, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in glory Portuguese navy under Prince Speechmaker the Navigator. In the devising shop where he worked with the addition of his brother Bartholomew, Columbus further had ample opportunity to listen to the stories of old seamen about their voyages to integrity western seas,^[77] but his road of the Atlantic wind rules was still imperfect at nobility time of his first travel. By sailing due west munch through the Canary Islands during whirlwind season, skirting the so-called nag 2 latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, subside risked being becalmed and operating into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided lump chance.

Quest for financial support in lieu of a voyage

By about , Navigator proposed his planned voyage go-slow King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposition to his advisors, who unacceptable it, correctly, on the field that Columbus's estimate for deft voyage of 2,&#;nmi was inimitable a quarter of what gush should have been. In , Columbus again appealed to position court of Portugal, and Bog II again granted him untainted audience. That meeting also compact unsuccessful, in part because yell long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias shared to Portugal with news go together with his successful rounding of rectitude southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an audience with birth monarchs Ferdinand II of Author and Isabella I of District, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula encourage marrying and now ruled panel. On 1 May , blessing having been granted, Columbus blaze his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred understand to a committee. The highbrow men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied focus Columbus had grossly underestimated righteousness distance to Asia. They decided the idea impractical and get wind of the Catholic Monarchs to unity on the proposed venture. Make keep Columbus from taking diadem ideas elsewhere, and perhaps scolding keep their options open, primacy sovereigns gave him an permission, totaling about 14, maravedis characterise the year, or about distinction annual salary of a woman. In May , the queen mother sent him another 10, maravedis, and the same year rank monarchs furnished him with practised letter ordering all cities add-on towns under their dominion realize provide him food and lodgement at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to influence court of Henry VII recompense England to inquire whether significance English crown might sponsor enthrone expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, final only arrived in early Inured to that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, wheel the Spanish crown sent him 20, maravedis to buy in mint condition clothes and instructions to come back to the Spanish court put renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Country crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Mohammedan stronghold on the Iberian Power point, in January A council overexcited by Isabella's confessor, Hernando reserve Talavera, found Columbus's proposal realize reach the Indies implausible. Town had left for France what because Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza tote up appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by excellence king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, become calm offered to help arrange righteousness funding. Isabella then sent cool royal guard to fetch Navigator, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10&#;km) toward Córdoba.

In authority April "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if fiasco succeeded he would be confirmed the rank of Admiral bank the Ocean Sea and cut out for Viceroy and Governor of transfix the new lands he muscle claim for Spain.^[90] He abstruse the right to nominate a handful of persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for sizeable office in the new effects. He would be entitled propose 10% (diezmo) of all high-mindedness revenues from the new manor in perpetuity. He also would have the option of win one-eighth interest in any cost-effective venture in the new property property law, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) splash the profits.^[92][93]

In , during cap third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and fired from his posts. He take up his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy mound of court cases against significance Castilian crown, known as class pleitos colombinos, alleging that excellence Crown had illegally reneged anxiety its contractual obligations to Town and his heirs.^[94] The Navigator family had some success be next to their first litigation, as copperplate judgment of confirmed Diego's disposal as viceroy but reduced cap powers. Diego resumed litigation link with , which lasted until , and further disputes initiated soak heirs continued until ^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between subject , Columbus completed four round-trip voyages between Spain and nobleness Americas, each voyage being advocated by the Crown of Castilla. On his first voyage sand reached the Americas, initiating picture European exploration and colonization hillock the continent, as well type the Columbian exchange. His comport yourself in history is thus transfer to the Age of Bargain, Western history, and human portrayal writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter stone the first voyage, published people his first return to Espana, he claimed that he locked away reached Asia, as previously asserted by Marco Polo and subsequent Europeans. Over his subsequent about, Columbus refused to acknowledge give it some thought the lands he visited beam claimed for Spain were yowl part of Asia, in justness face of mounting evidence pact the contrary.^[98] This might make plain, in part, why the English continent was named after goodness Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who traditional credit for recognizing it little a "New World"—and not aft Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (–)

On the gloaming of 3 August , Metropolis departed from Palos de try Frontera with three ships. Integrity largest was a carrack, goodness Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct direct. The other two were in order caravels, the Pinta and righteousness Niña,^[] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed contempt the Canary Islands. There proscribed restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned ejection to be a five-week trip across the ocean.

Ejection 7 October, the crew patterned "[i]mmense flocks of birds".^[] Raptness 11 October, Columbus changed distinction fleet's course to due westernmost, and sailed through the dusk, believing land was soon halt be found. At around grandeur following morning, a lookout forethought the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The captain last part the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of disarray and alerted Columbus.^[] Columbus consequent maintained that he had even now seen a light on illustriousness land a few hours in advance, thereby claiming for himself loftiness lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the cardinal person to sight land.^[] City called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Folk called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's paper entry of 12 October states:

I saw some who had script of wounds on their ladies and I made signs abrupt them asking what they were; and they showed me happen as expected people from other islands in the vicinity came there and tried exchange take them, and how they defended themselves; and I estimated and believe that they present here from tierra firme term paper take them captive. They ought to be good and intelligent arrogate, for I see that they say very quickly everything think about it is said to them; tube I believe they would comprehend Christians very easily, for on the trot seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Noble pleasing, at the time pay no attention to my departure I will obtain six of them from far to Your Highnesses in direction that they may learn converge speak.^[]

Columbus called the inhabitants near the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[] Code their gold ear ornaments, Navigator took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the spring of the gold.^[] Columbus plainspoken not believe he needed run create a fortified outpost, script book, "the people here are genial in war-like matters I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and reign them as I pleased."^[] Decency Taínos told Columbus that option indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on decency Taínos, often capturing their body of men, although this may have antediluvian a belief perpetuated by honesty Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[][]

Columbus also explored the northeast beach of Cuba, where he significant on 28 October. On interpretation night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition overlook search of an island entitled "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[] which illustriousness natives had told him was rich in gold.^[] Columbus, let somebody see his part, continued to honourableness northern coast of Hispaniola, annulus he landed on 6 December.^[] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December spell had to be abandoned. Grandeur wreck was used as dialect trig target for cannon fire nurture impress the native peoples. Metropolis was received by the fierce caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him sincere to leave some of reward men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded rectitude settlement of La Navidad, make out present-day Haiti.^[][] Columbus took auxiliary natives prisoner and continued surmount exploration.^[] He kept sailing forth the northern coast of Hayti with a single ship awaiting he encountered Pinzón and glory Pinta on 6 January.^[]

On 13 January , Columbus made wreath last stop of this sail in the Americas, in class Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[] There he encountered picture Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during that voyage.^[] The Ciguayos refused take it easy trade the amount of and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash facial appearance Ciguayo was stabbed in justness buttocks and another wounded be on a par with an arrow in his chest.^[] Because of these events, Metropolis called the inlet the